An important aspect of motor function is our ability to rapidly generate goal-directed corrections for disturbances to the limb or behavioural goal. Primary motor cortex (M1) is a key region involved in processing feedback for rapid motor corrections, yet we know little about how M1 circuits are recruited by different sources of sensory feedback to make rapid corrections. We trained two male monkeys ( Macaca mulatta ) to make goal-directed reaches and on random trials introduced different sensory errors by either jumping the visual location of the goal (goal jump), jumping the visual location of the hand (cursor jump) or by applying a mechanical load to displace the hand (proprioceptive feedback). Sensory perturbations evoked a broad response in M1 with ∼73% of neurons (n=257) responding to at least one of the sensory perturbations. Feedback responses were also similar as response ranges between the goal and cursor jumps were highly correlated (range of r=[0.91, 0.97]) as were the response ranges between t...

The Drosophila Dpr and DIP proteins belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell surface proteins (CSPs). Their hetero- and homophilic interactions have been implicated in a variety of neuronal functions, including synaptic connectivity, cell survival, and axon fasciculation. However, the signaling pathways underlying these diverse functions are unknown. To gain insight into Dpr–DIP signaling, we sought to examine how these CSPs are associated with the membrane. Specifically, we asked whether Dprs and DIPs are integral membrane proteins or membrane anchored through the addition of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linkage. We demonstrate that most Dprs and DIPs are GPI anchored to the membrane of insect cells and validate these findings for some family members in vivo using Drosophila larvae, where GPI anchor cleavage results in loss of surface labeling. Additionally, we show that GPI cleavage abrogates aggregation of insect cells expressing cognate Dpr–DIP partners. To test if the GPI anchor affects ...

In critically ill newborns, exposure to hypercapnia (HC) is common and often accepted in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) to prevent severe lung injury. However, as a “safe” range of arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) levels in neonates has not been established, the potential impact of HC on the neurodevelopmental outcomes in these newborns remains a matter of concern. Here, in a newborn Yorkshire piglet model of either sex, we show that acute exposure to HC induced persistent cortical neuronal injury, associated cognitive and learning deficits, and long-term suppression of cortical electroencephalographic (EEG) frequencies. HC induced a transient energy failure in cortical neurons, a persistent dysregulation of calcium-dependent pro-apoptotic signaling in the cerebral cortex, and activation of the apoptotic cascade, leading to nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fragmentation. While neither one hour of HC nor the rapid normalization of HC were associated with changes in cortical bioe...

The medial habenula (MHb) has been identified as the limiting factor for nicotine intake and facilitating nicotine withdrawal. However, few studies have assessed MHb neuronal excitability in response to nicotine and, currently, a gap in knowledge is present for finding behavioral correlates to neuronal excitability in the region. Moreover, no study to date has evaluated sex or nicotine dosage as factors of excitability in the MHb. Here, we utilized an e-vape® self-administration (EVSA) model to determine differences between sexes with different nicotine dosages ± menthol. Following this paradigm, we employed patch-clamp electrophysiology to assess key metrics of MHb neuronal excitability in relation to behavioral endpoints. We observed female mice self-administered significantly more than males, regardless of dosage. We also observed a direct correlation between self-administration behavior and MHb excitability with low-dose nicotine + menthol in males. Conversely, a high dose of nicotine ± menthol yields ...

Stroke continues to be a leading cause of death and long-term disabilities worldwide, despite extensive research efforts. The failure of multiple clinical trials raises the need for continued study of brain injury mechanisms and novel therapeutic strategies for ischemic stroke. The contribution of acid-sensing ion channel 1a (ASIC1a) to neuronal injury during the acute phase of stroke has been well studied, however, the long-term impact of ASIC1a inhibition on stroke recovery has not been established. The present study sought to bridge part of the translational gap by focusing on long-term behavioral recovery after a 30-minute stroke in mice that had ASIC1a knocked out or inhibited by PcTX1. The neurological consequences of stroke in mice were evaluated before and after the stroke using neurological deficit score, open field, and corner turn test over a 28-day period. ASIC1a knocked out and inhibited mice showed improved neurological scores more quickly than wild-type control and vehicle-injected mice afte...

Automated behavior quantification in socially interacting animals requires accurate tracking. While many methods have been very successful and highly generalizable to different settings, issues of mis­taken identities and lost information on key anatomical features are common, although they can be alleviated by increased human effort in training or post-processing. We propose a markerless video­based tool to simultaneously track two interacting mice of the same appearance in controlled settings for quantifying behaviors such as different types of sniffing, touching, and locomotion, to improve tracking accuracy under these settings without increased human effort. It incorporates conventional handcrafted tracking and deep-learning-based techniques. The tool is trained on a small number of manually annotated images from a basic experimental setup and outputs body masks and coordinates of the snout and tail-base for each mouse. The method was tested on several commonly used exper­imental conditions including b...

Orexins, which are produced within neurons of the lateral hypothalamic area, play a pivotal role in the regulation of various behaviors, including sleep/wakefulness, reward behavior, and energy metabolism, via orexin receptor type 1 (OX1R) and type 2 (OX2R). Despite the advanced understanding of orexinergic regulation of behavior at the circuit level, the precise distribution of orexin receptors in the brain remains unknown. Here, we develop a new branched in situ hybridization chain reaction (bHCR) technique to visualize multiple target mRNAs in a semiquantitative manner, combined with immunohistochemistry, which provided comprehensive distribution of orexin receptor mRNA and neuron subtypes expressing orexin receptors in mouse brains. Only a limited number of cells expressing both Ox1r and Ox2r were observed in specific brain regions, such as the dorsal raphe nucleus and ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus. In many brain regions, Ox1r -expressing cells and Ox2r -expressing cells belong to different cell ty...

NMDA receptors (NMDARs) modulate glutamatergic excitatory tone in the brain via two complementary modalities: a phasic excitatory postsynaptic current and a tonic extrasynaptic modality. Here, we demonstrated that the tonic extrasynaptic NMDAR- current (INMDA) mediated by NR2A-containing NMDARs is an efficient biosensor detecting the altered ambient glutamate level in the supraoptic nucleus (SON). INMDA of magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MNCs) measured by nonselective NMDARs antagonist, AP5, at holding potential (Vholding) -70 mV in low concentration of ECF Mg2+ ([Mg2+]o) was transiently but significantly increased 1-week post induction of a DOCA (deoxycorticosterone) -salt hypertensive model rat. The INMDA uncovered by AP5 was compatible with that induced by a NR2A-selective antagonist, PEAQX (IPEAQX) in both DOCA-H2O (animals receive normal water after DOCA) and DOCA-salt (animals receive a mixture of 0.8% NaCl and 0.2% KCl in water after DOCA) groups. In agreement, NR2B antagonist, ifenprodil, or NR...

We have developed an open-source software for neuroscientists to analyze electrophysiological recordings. Named SimplyFire, the software gives the users the flexibility to analyze a variety of recordings using an interactive graphical user interface or as an importable Python package. The software features a simple plug-in structure that allows users to create and deploy various electrophysiology analysis tools. SimplyFire is prepackaged with tools commonly used in electrophysiology, such as noise filtering, trace averaging, miniature analysis, and trace exporting. We discuss in detail the algorithm behind different features of the analysis tool. We provide verification of the accuracy of the algorithm by testing the software using computer-generated traces with known true values of the events. SimplyFire will be distributed under the GPLv3.0 license. The open nature of this software will allow interested investigators to modify and expand the software for additional capabilities as needed. We believe this...

Lumbar erector spinae (LES) contribute to spine postural and voluntary control. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) preferentially depolarizes different neural circuits depending on the direction of electrical currents evoked in the brain. Based on recent evidence, posteroanterior current (PA-TMS) and anteroposterior (AP-TMS) current would respectively depolarize neurons in the primary motor cortex (M1) and the premotor cortex. These regions may contribute differently to LES control. This study examined whether responses evoked by PA- and AP-TMS are different during the preparation and execution of LES voluntary and postural tasks. Participants performed a reaction time task. A Warning signal indicated to prepare to flex shoulders (postural, n=15) or to tilt the pelvis (voluntary, n=13) at the Go signal. Single- and paired-pulse TMS (short-interval intracortical inhibition - SICI) were applied using PA- and AP-TMS before the Warning signal (baseline), between the Warning and Go signals (preparation) o...