The control of contraction strength is a key part of movement control. In primates, both corticospinal and reticulospinal cells provide input to motoneurons. Corticospinal discharge is known to correlate with force, but there are no previous reports of how reticular formation (RF) activity modulates with different contractions. Here we trained two female macaque monkeys (body weight, 5.9–6.9 kg) to pull a handle that could be loaded with 0.5–6 kg weights and recorded from identified pyramidal tract neurons (PTNs) in primary motor cortex and RF cells during task performance. Population-averaged firing rate increased monotonically with higher force for the RF, but showed a complex profile with little net modulation for PTNs. This reflected a more heterogeneous profile of rate modulation across the PTN population, leading to cancellation in the average. Linear discriminant analysis classified the force based on the time course of rate modulation equally well for PTNs and RF cells. Peak firing rate had signifi...

To explore whether the thalamus participates in lexical status (word vs nonword) processing during spoken word production, we recorded local field potentials from the ventral lateral thalamus in 11 essential tremor patients (three females) undergoing thalamic deep-brain stimulation lead implantation during a visually cued word and nonword reading-aloud task. We observed task-related beta (12–30 Hz) activity decreases that were preferentially time locked to stimulus presentation, and broadband gamma (70–150 Hz) activity increases, which are thought to index increased multiunit spiking activity, occurring shortly before and predominantly time locked to speech onset. We further found that thalamic beta activity decreases bilaterally were greater when nonwords were read, demonstrating bilateral sensitivity to lexical status that likely reflects the tracking of task effort; in contrast, greater nonword-related increases in broadband gamma activity were observed only on the left, demonstrating lateralization of ...

ClC-3, ClC-4, and ClC-5 are electrogenic chloride/proton exchangers that can be found in endosomal compartments of mammalian cells. Although the association with genetic diseases and the severe phenotype of knock-out animals illustrate their physiological importance, the cellular functions of these proteins have remained insufficiently understood. We here study the role of two Clcn3 splice variants, ClC-3b and ClC-3c, in granular exocytosis and catecholamine accumulation of adrenal chromaffin cells using a combination of high-resolution capacitance measurements, amperometry, protein expression/gene knock out/down, rescue experiments, and confocal microscopy. We demonstrate that ClC-3c resides in immature as well as in mature secretory granules, where it regulates catecholamine accumulation and contributes to the establishment of the readily releasable pool of secretory vesicles. The lysosomal splice variant ClC-3b contributes to vesicle priming only with low efficiency and leaves the vesicular catecholamin...

Lulu Yao, Yi Rong, Xiaoyan Ma, Haifu Li, Di Deng, et al. (see pages [3066–3079][1]) Activation of synaptic NMDA receptors (NMDARs) in excitatory neurons has a well established role in synaptic plasticity. Activation of extrasynaptic NMDARs in excitatory neurons can lead to synapse removal and

The NMDA subtype glutamate receptors (NMDARs) play important roles in both physiological and pathologic processes in the brain. Compared with their critical roles in synaptic modifications and excitotoxicity in excitatory neurons, much less is understood about the functional contributions of NMDARs to the inhibitory GABAergic neurons. By using selective NMDAR inhibitors and potentiators, we here show that NMDARs bidirectionally modulate the intrinsic excitability (defined as spontaneous/evoked spiking activity and EPSP-spike coupling) in inhibitory GABAergic neurons in adult male and female mice. This modulation depends on GluN2C/2D- but not GluN2A/2B-containing NMDARs. We further show that NMDAR modulator EU1794-4 mostly enhances extrasynaptic NMDAR activity, and by using it we demonstrate a significant contribution of extrasynaptic NMDARs to the modulation of intrinsic excitability in inhibitory neurons. Together, this bidirectional modulation of intrinsic excitability reveals a previously less appreciat...

During visually guided behaviors, mere hundreds of milliseconds can elapse between a sensory input and its associated behavioral response. How spikes occurring at different times are integrated to drive perception and action remains poorly understood. We delivered random trains of optogenetic stimulation (white noise) to excite inhibitory interneurons in V1 of mice of both sexes while they performed a visual detection task. We then performed a reverse correlation analysis on the optogenetic stimuli to generate a neuronal-behavioral kernel, an unbiased, temporally precise estimate of how suppression of V1 spiking at different moments around the onset of a visual stimulus affects detection of that stimulus. Electrophysiological recordings enabled us to capture the effects of optogenetic stimuli on V1 responsivity and revealed that the earliest stimulus-evoked spikes are preferentially weighted for guiding behavior. These data demonstrate that white noise optogenetic stimulation is a powerful tool for underst...

Auditory cortex (ACX) neurons are sensitive to spectro-temporal sound patterns and violations in patterns induced by rare stimuli embedded within streams of sounds. We investigate the auditory cortical representation of repeated presentations of sequences of sounds with standard stimuli (common) with an embedded deviant (rare) stimulus in two conditions, Periodic (Fixed deviant position) or Random (Random deviant position). We used extracellular single-unit and two-photon Ca2+ imaging recordings in layer 2/3 neurons of the mouse ( Mus musculus ) ACX of either sex. Population single-unit average responses increased over repetitions in the Random condition and were suppressed or did not change in the Periodic condition, showing general irregularity preference. A subset of neurons showed the opposite behavior, indicating regularity preference. Furthermore, pairwise noise correlations were higher in the Random condition than in the Periodic condition, suggesting a role of recurrent connections in the observed ...

Anti-NMDA receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder associated with autoantibodies against NMDARs, which cause a variety of symptoms from prominent psychiatric and cognitive manifestations to seizures and autonomic instability. Previous studies mainly focused on hippocampal effects of these autoantibodies, helping to explain mechanistic causes for cognitive impairment. However, antibodies' effects on higher cortical network function, where they could contribute to psychosis and/or seizures, have not been explored in detail until now. Here, we employed a patient-derived monoclonal antibody targeting the NR1 subunit of NMDAR and tested its effects on in vitro cultures of rodent cortical neurons, using imaging and electrophysiological techniques. We report that this hNR1 antibody drives cortical networks to a hyperexcitable state and disrupts mechanisms stabilizing network activity such as Npas4 signaling. Network hyperactivity is in part a result of a reduced synaptic output of inhi...

The ability to comprehend phrases is an essential integrative property of the brain. Here, we evaluate the neural processes that enable the transition from single-word processing to a minimal compositional scheme. Previous research has reported conflicting timing effects of composition, and disagreement persists with respect to inferior frontal and posterior temporal contributions. To address these issues, 19 patients (10 male, 9 female) implanted with penetrating depth or surface subdural intracranial electrodes, heard auditory recordings of adjective-noun, pseudoword-noun, and adjective-pseudoword phrases and judged whether the phrase matched a picture. Stimulus-dependent alterations in broadband gamma activity, low-frequency power, and phase-locking values across the language-dominant left hemisphere were derived. This revealed a mosaic located on the lower bank of the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), in which closely neighboring cortical sites displayed exclusive sensitivity to either lexical...